Agusan is presently composed of two provinces, namely Agusan del Norte and Agusan del Sur. The area of the provinces combined covers the entire area of the Agusan River basin.1 Agusan was the name given to the place by the Spaniards. It was derived from the Visayan words agas,2 meaning “to flow” hence agasan, meaning “where the water flow.” Agusan River flows through the flood plain of both Agusan provinces. The river was referred to in the Spanish documents as the Butuan River,3 after a village along its bank a little upstream from the bay of the same name. Later, the river was called Agusan River.4
A. The Land
Agusan is located in the northeastern part of Mindanao. It is bounded by Butuan Bay and partly by Surigao del Norte in the north, Surigao del Norte and Surigao del Sur in the east, Misamis Oriental and Bukidnon in the West, and Davao del Norte in the South.5 Agusan's total land area before its division into Agusan del Norte and Agusan del Sur in 1967 was 1,155,579 hectares.6
Agusan is shaped like an elongated basin walled by Mountain ranges on the eastern and western sides.7 On the east rise the Diwata Mountain ranges which traverse from Claver, Surigao del Norte, passing through Agusan del Norte, and southward to Sumilao in the south.The highest peak in the Diwata Mountain Ranges is at Mt. Hilonghilong, 8 which can be seen from Butuan City like a giant eastern wall.
On the northwest rises Mt. Kitomoy, which serves as the boundary between Agusan and Misamis Oriental. Southward from Mt. Kitomoy are the high mountains between Agusan and Bukidnon, with Mt. Timuyog, Mt. Baliagan, Mt. Bahaon, Mt. Kinabalian and Datu Masupaya as the notable peaks.9
B. The Climate
In Agusan, the monsoon from the northeast draws cold air masses from North Asia during the months of November to February. The southwest monsoon is dominant during the months of July to October. The temperature ranges from 19 degrees to 30 degrees centigrade in March to May while relative humidity varies from 82 to 86. 10
Ilawud’s climate is characterized by an even distribution of rainfall throughout the year.11 The highest rainfall of 510 mm occurs in January and evenly distributed rainfall of 190 to 260 mm occurs from April to November. Wet season of a maximum rain period is from December to March.12
In the Ilaya, however there is an absence of dry season. Although not a part of the typhoon belt, the pronounced rainfall of 600 mm from December and January caused frequent floods in the upper section of Agusan. Minimum rainfall of 150 mm occurs in August and September. 13 The area between Talacogon and Bunawan, which comprises 1,294 Km2 is poorly drained. This resulted to seasonal floods in the area.14
C. Flora and Fauna
The soil type of Agusan is predominantly alluvium. This soil type plus the climate make Agusan one of the most fertile in the country. In 1997, 74% of the Agusan area is covered by dipterocarp forests with a heavy stand of natural vegetation. The principal timber species are lauan, apitong, guijo, mayapis, bagtikan, tanguile and yakal. It was estimated that 300 cubic meter of commercial timber could be extracted per hectare. 15
Of the 1,155,579 hectare total land area of Agusan, 738,904 hectare is classified as dipterocarp forest. Of which about 116,542 hectares are further classified as virgin forest while 153,829 hectares are considered repbrush forest. Residual forest occupies 405,951 ha while mangrove: 2,836 ha and mossy: 44,516 ha. Tracts of land classified as non-forest comprises 416,675 ha. Those that are simply grasslands are now utilized as agricultural areas planted with rice (Oryza Sativa) and corn (Zea mays).16
Few wild animals are observed in the ilawud. There are birds like collared kingfisher (Halcyon chloris Scopoli 1786), coucal (Centropus sp.) Philippine mallard (Anas Luzonica Fraser 1839), green winged pigeon (Chalcophaps indica L.1758) and fantails (Rhipidura sp.). There are also several species of snakes, lizards, frogs and rats (Rattus sp.).
Ilaya is home to wild animals such as pig (Sus barbatus Muller 1838), deer (Cervus (Rusa) francianus Smith), wildcats (Paradoxuros philippinensis Jourdan, Viverra tangalunga Gray) and macaque (macaca Philippinensis Geoffrey).17
D. The Ilawud
Facing Butuan Bay is the coastal plain of Agusan. The area is known among the Manobos as ilawud. Ilawud has a gentle rolling plain broken occasionally by hills, which rarely exceed 300 meters. Except for few heights like Mt. Mayapay and Pinamanculan hills, the area is largely a flood plain, drained by Agusan River and its numerous tributaries.
Ilawud has a very long geological history. Two million years ago, the area was totally underwater. The base of Mt. Mayapay was then its shoreline and the Agusan River empties directly to the Butuan Bay. Due to heavy annual rainfall in the upper Agusan River valley, mineral ores and silt found their way to the Agusan River through its tributary rivers and run-offs. The silt, mineral ores, sand, clay, mud and heavy alluvial soil were washed into the sea in great volumes by the oftentimes swollen river. The long process of deposition led to the formation of the delta in the Butuan Bay. This delta became a part of Agusan del Norte, the Ilawud. 18
The Lapaknon Manobos inhabited the ilawud, particularly the coastal and riverine areas. The preferred places of habitation were low flat, either swampy or marshy and fed by Agusan river’s tributaries and streams. The areas settled by the lapaknon manobos are known today as Ambangan, Suatan, Masao, Magallanes and Butuan. 19
In Ambangan, Balanghai 1 site is formed by five Lapaknon Manobo habitations, which had been discovered and systematically excavated. In Bario Suatan in Butuan, the Butuanon residents who were believed to be the descendants of the Lapaknon Manobos, still build their houses on stilts. This type of dwelling was already in existence as early as the 9th and 10th centuries A.D. other archaeological sites in the ilawud were found to be habitations, burial or workshop sites.20
E. The Ilaya
Towards the interior, beyond Mt. Mayapay is an area called the ilaya. 21 the recollects who started to evangelize ilaya in 1597, misheard the term and recorded instead, layalaya, in their first on-the-spot reports of their evangelization efforts.22
In 1521, Raia siaui pointed ilaya to Ferdinand Magellan as Calagan, a territory with no definite boundaries.23 The Spaniards corrupted the term to Caraga and later assigned it to a Spanish province comprising what is known today as Agusan-Surigao provinces and Davao.24 These above-named provinces from part of the Agusan river basin.25
Ilaya is a vast tract of land, largely, a river basin drained by numerous tributary rivers, which converge into the Agusan river. The area was sparsely inhabited. The nomadic Agusanon Manobos lived in scattered huts along the Agusan River or its tributaries, near plains, which were suited to rice cultivation, and in the forests on the mountain slopes. 26 Some, however, lived in Ilaya’s mountain ridges. 27 the Agusanon Manobo-settled area in the Ilaya are the areas known today as Amparo, Esperanza, Talacogon, Sagunto and Bunawan. All these areas produced material remains of Old Manobo settlements. 28
F. Agusan River: The Link
Bisecting the Agusan valley is the 250-kilometer Agusan River, which starts from Davao del Norte and empties into Butuan Bay. It is fed along its course by several mountain streams and small lakes, namely: Lakes Mantood, Dagan, and Lumao; and tributary rivers like: Bugabos, Ojot, Busilao, Libang, Maasin, Kasilangan, Asopa, Tahoan, Umasa, Lagum, Simulao, Anahauan, Adgaoan, Libang, Sibagat, and Taguibo. These rivers either flow from the mountains east or west of the Agusan River. Agusan River’s average annual run-off is 27,800 mcm.
The great volume of water discharged by Agusan River makes it the third largest river basin in the Philippines. The Agusan River Basin covers an area of appropriately 11,500 square kilometers, approximately covering the areas of Davao, Agusan del Norte and Agusan del Sur. 29 The river channel is navigable by motor boats and launches up to about 100 km, from the mouth of the river down towards the Municipality of Bunawan in the south.30 Agusan river lies in the latitude North 9 7’ and at 125 31’ longitude east.31
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1 “Major River Basins of the Philippines,” The Philippine Atlas: A Historical, Economical, Educational Profile of the Philippines, Vol.1, (Manila: FAPE, 1975) p.210
2 Rosario C. Lucero, “Agusanon Manobos,” CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Arts (Manila: Sentrong Pangkultura ng Pilipinas, 1994) p.41.
3 Luis de Jesus, “General History of the Discalced Religious of St Augustine,” Blair and Robertson, Vol.21, p.220.
4 Mardonio M. Lao, “Butuan Before the Spanish Occupation,” Mindanao Journal Vol.6, nos. 2-4 (1979-1980) p.244.
5 “Relief Map of Agusan ,” The Philippine Atlas: A Historical, Economical, Educational Profile of the Philippines, Vol.1, (Manila: FAPE,1975), p.12.
6 “Agusan Profile,” The Philippine Atlas: A Historical, Economical, Educational Profile of the Philippines, Vol.1, (Manila: FAPE, 1975), pp.92-93.
7 Dionisio L. Yumo, “Power Politics of Southern Agusan Manobo,” Mindanao Journal Vol 15, nos. 1-4, (1988-1989) pp.4-5.
8 “Agusan Map,” Atlas of the Philippines. (1959) pp.43-44.
9 "Relief Map of Agusan ," The Philippine Atlas: A Historical, Economical, Educational Profile of the Philippines, vol.1, (Manila: FAPE, 1975) p.12.
10 ASEAN Report, “Report on the High-fired Ceramic Shards of Butuan Sites: Torralba, Luna, Plaza, and Burdeos.” The Third Intra-ASEAN Archaeological Excavation and Conservation Workshop, Butuan City, Philippines, Manila: National Museum, 1986.
11 “Agusan Profile,” The Philippine Atlas, Vol.1, p.93.
12 Angel P. Bautista, “Archaeological Report on the Luna and Torralba Sites, Butuan City, Agusan del Norte,” National Museum Papers I, 1 (1990) 7.
13 “Region XII (Caraga Administrative Region),” Philippine Regional Profiles – Mindanao 1996, Makati: Belgosa Business Communications, Inc., 1996) p.45.
14 Eric S. Casiño, The Filipino Nation, The Philippines: Lands and Peoples, A Cultural Geography (USA: Grolier International Philippines, Inc., 1982) p. 194.
15 Philippine Almanac and handbook of Facts (Quezon City: Philippine Almanac Printers, Inc., 1977) p.144.
16 “Soil Map,” Philippine Regional Resources Atlas, Vol.2 (Manila: DENR).
17 Angel P. Bautista, “Archaeological Report on the Luna and Torralba Sites, Butuan City, Agusan del Norte,” National Museum Papers, Vol. 1, no. 1 (1990) pp. 7-9.
21 Epafrodito Flores, “A Manobo Word List,” (Handwritten). It is now with Prof. Manolita Rosales, Urios College, Butuan City.
22 Peter Schreurs, “The Odyssey of Bunawan and talacogon: 1867-1879,” Kinaadman Vol.7. no.1, (1985) p.1.
23 Antonio Pigafetta, “First Voyage Around the World,” Blair and Robertson, Vol.33, p.121.
24 Fernando A. Almeda, Jr., “Story of the Province of Surigao Across the years (Quezon City. Heritage Publishing House and PNHS, 1993).p.3.
25 “Major River Basins of the Philippines,” The Philippine Atlas: A Historical, Economical, Educational profile of the Philippines, Vol.1, (Manila: FAPE, 1975)p.210.
26 Peter Schreurs, “The Odyssey of Bunawan and Talacogon: 1867-1879,” Kinaadman Vol. 7, no. 1, (1985) pp.1-2.
27 John M. Garvan, The Manobos of Mindanao (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1931).
28 Erlinda M. Burton, Interview with the author, 8 November 1996.
29 Philippine Regional Resources Atlas, Vol. 2 (Manila: DENR, n.d.), surface Hydrology Map.
30 Adolfo B. Sanchez, 1521 (li) Masawa 9Butuan City. Adolfo B. Sanchez, 1977), 31-32.
31 ibid. p.31.
18 History of the Balangay Sites, Diorama Exhibit, Philippine National Museum, Caraga Region Branch, Butuan City.
19 Erlinda M. Burton, “Settlement and Burial Sites in Butuan City. A Preliminary Report,” Philippine Studies Vol.27 (1977) pp. 108-112.
20 Angel P. Bautista, “Archaeological Report on the Luna and Torralba Sites, Butuan City, Agusan del Norte,” National Museum Papers, Vol.1, no. 1 (1990) p.7.
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