A. Peopling of Agusan
There were three theories that try to explain the peopling of Agusan. Dr. Richard Elkins, Fray Juan de San Antonio and Jose Algue proposed these theories. The Manobos themselves tried to explain their own origin through myth.
Dr. Richard Elkins surmised that the Agusanon Manobos belong to the original stock of Proto-Austronesians who came from Southern China thousands of years ago. These Proto-Austronesian migrants occupied the present day Camiguin, Bukidnon and Agusan.1
On the contrary, Fray Juan Francisco de San Antonio believed that the Manobos came from the neighboring islands of Borney and Makassar of the Moluccas islands.2 This theory seemed to be consistent with the archaeological finds. Ninety percent of the skulls dug up in Suatan, Butuan City were deformed – the Manobos were flat headed, an evidence of their infant cranial deformation practice. This practice was common among the Dayaks, a small tribe of Borneo as well as among some tribes in Moluccas Islands.3
Jose Algue, on the other hand, believed that the Manobos came from Madagascar who went island hopping and reached the Philippines via Asia.4 Malagasy, the national language of Madagascar, and the Manobo had some similarities, both being members of Austronesian language family.5
According to Erlinda M. Burton, the Lapaknon Manobos and the Agusanon Manobos were culturally related to each other.9
B. The Manobos
The Manobos were the original settlers of Mindanao.10 They belong to a stock of “pure race” Indonesians11 who came and settled in Agusan, Bukidnon, Camiguin, Cagayan, and Misamis thousands of years ago.12 From these pioneering Manobo settlers descended about 19 smaller ethnolinguistic subgroups. They were the Agusan-Surigao, Ata, Banwaon, Blit, Bukidnon, Cotabato, Dibabawon, Higaonon, Ilianen, Kulamanen, Uvo, Matigsalug, Rajah Kabungsuan, Sarangani, Tagabawa, Tasaday, Tigwa, Umayamnon and Western Bukidnon.13
Thus, the term Manobo seemed to be a generic name for people of greatly divergent cultures, physical types, and languages.14 They inhabited various points along the coast of the Bay of Malalag, especially on the point of San Agustin down to Sarangani.15 They can also be found among the mountains of Butuan in the province of Caraga;16 in the valley of Agusan which extends from Butuan to Oloagusan; and finally at various points in the interior district of Cotabato.17
The term Manobo, according Fr. Pablo Pastells came from the word manuba or mansuba, meaning river dweller. Ferdinand Blumentritt with whom Wenceslao Retana agreed, said that the etymology of the term was a combination of man and suba. Man, meaning people and suba, river. Roughly, mansuba means river-people.18
Other writers, however, gave their own opinions on the meaning of the word Manobo. According to Fray Pedro de San Francisco de Asis, the term, in the Manobo language means robust or numerous people.19 Sociologist Dionisio Yumo, in his master’s thesis surmised that it comes from the words man (people) and hubo (naked), therefore it means naked people. It can also be said that the suffix ubo, might come from the word tubo, (to grow), meaning, people who grow in the island – that is, the original settlers.20
Most Spanish documents spoke of Manobos as a savage race of heathens, warlike, valiant, and did have little interest for work.21 They were a brave nation on sea and on land, and were bold against all, that no one dared to do anything to them.22 They were also noted for their treacherous disposition, brutish customs23 and were noted to be always on the hunt for slaves. They, accordingly possessed firearms, which they procured from the Moros through slaves.24 However, they lived in an ordered civilization.25
C. Manobo Politics and Social Organization
The Manobo society is a warrior society.26 The traditional social structure consists of the bagani (warrior), the baylan (tribal priest), commoners and slaves. As a warrior society, warriors called bagani dominated the Manobo politics. The Bisayan merchants called these baganis, datus, as they were considered leaders among their peoples. But the Manobos called him bagani, a title, which he shared with other members of his class.27
An ordinary bagani was a warrior who had to his credit at least five deaths. He had the privilege of wearing a red turban around his head. A higher rank, distinguished by red turban and red shirt, was gained after killing between ten and twenty enemies. The more number of deaths attributed to his credit, the higher his rank and influence become. Killing more than twenty enemies meant wearing red turban, red shirt, red pants and red decorations on his weapons.28 The locks of hair, which they cut from their victims’heads were used ‘to adorn the rim of their shields.’29
Thus, baganis were known to be the bravest and the fiercest persons in the community. From this they derived their power, respect and influence. The baganis were expected to defend their community in times of siege and to go to battle in times of war.30
Another important leader in the Manobo society was the baylan. A baylan was a priest or priestess, who was at the same time the tribal medicine man.31 They were summoned to lead appropriate rituals in times of waging wars, sowing seeds or healing the sick.32 They were also called to administer medical assistance and treatment in cases of accident, illness and childbirth, and if necessary, lead the curing rituals.33
The commoners were the farmers, fishers, craftsmen, and others. While, the slaves were the servants, who had been seized in raids, acquired as bride price in marriage34 or purchased through trade.
D. Manobo Economy
The livelihood of the Manobos differed according to their environments. The Lapaknon Manobos of the ilawud, who lived near the coasts and in the estuarine environment, were fishers, hunters, wet-farmers, miners and traders. While the Agusanon Manobos of the ilaya, who lived in the forested interiors, were hunters, wet-rice farmers, gatherers of beeswax and resins, and slave raiders.
The discovered balanghais, wooden paddles, netweights, remains of a fish, marine mollusks and sea turtle in Ambangan, indicated that the Lapaknon Manobos were fishers. Midden remains in both Suatan and Ambangan also indicated that they hunted boar and deer, and domesticated chickens, pigs, dogs and carabaos.35 Excavated wood and metal implements suggested that they were also farmers.36 Pigafetta reported seeing rice fields in 1521.37
The presence of raw materials in ilawud encouraged some specialization in craftsmanship. Some thus, became potters,38 smiths,39 boat builders,40 others became miners.41 Somehow, because of the influences of the inter-island trade wherein the merchants regularly dropped anchor in ilawud, the Lapaknon Manobos, became traders themselves.42
Agusanon Manobos, according to Fray Luis de Jesus, were hunters by livelihood.43 They hunted and trapped game animals like boar, deer, monkey, wild chicken and many others. They practiced swidden agriculture, and planted rice (hum ay), sweet potato (camote), yam (gabe), and banana (platanos).44 However, Fray Pablo Pastells noted that they ‘annually changed abode to make newfield.’45 They gathered forest products like fruits, beeswax and resins for trade.46 According to Fr. Mateo Gisbert, “they hunt for slaves,” which they bartered for firearms from the Moros.47
E. Manobo Religion
Manobos were animist, but they seemed to acknowledge one supreme deity, Magbabaya, the creator.48 Magbabaya lived in the eastern skies. He created everything, the skies, mountains, lands, rivers, lakes, sea, plants, animals and the people. Magbabaya also created the spirits, who served as his messengers to the mortals on earth.
Like Magbabaya, these spirits were invisible, intangible and powerful. They lived in the heavens, between the heavens and the earth, in the jungles, fields, rivers, or lakes and etc. They perform the role of taking care of he animals and plants, which lived around their habitats. These spirits were either diwatas, engkantos and umagads.49
Magbabaya created the diwatas to take charged of the (1)Thunderbolts, lightning, clouds, winds, rains, storms, and good weather (Inadyaw, Anit, Umowiwi, Libtakan); (2)Rivers, lakes, streams and fishes (Yumod, who were half man, half fish);50 (3)Forests, mountains and wild animals (Taebobong, Sandiganan, and Sugudun); (4)Agriculture, fields, soil, rice and other crops (Taephagan, Hakyadan, Tagamaling and Ibabasok); (5)Molding of a child’s soul (Mandait). There were also malevolent diwatas who induce men to commit murder and other criminal acts (Tagbusao, Inampu, Tagbanuas, Panaiyang, Agkui). Some Manobos had their own personal deities.51
The engkantos, (literally, ‘enchanted ones’) were the malevolent spirits who lived in big trees and empty houses in cities. They were considered malevolent because they cause illness and bring havoc to people’s lives. While the umagads were the souls of departed human beings. They were appeased through sugnod, a ritual that reached Maibuyan, the land of the dead.52
In the Manobo society, religion and its ceremonial observance were very much part of a Manobo. From child ceremony (Tagun-on tu bata) to funeral rites (katapusan) and even in the afterlife ritual (Sugnod), a Manobo is truly bounded by these rites of passages, beliefs, taboos and superstitions, which were often incorporated in the belief system.53
Almost all Manobo rituals required uncooked rice, water, pepper leaf (buyo), betel nut (mam-on), and lime made from burnt seashell (apug) as offerings. In the past these offerings were placed in porcelain jars and plates. Also in the past, rituals required human sacrifices, whose heart and liver were eaten by the baylans representing the diwatas. Today, however, china plates were used in place of porcelain wares and a pig or chicken in place of human sacrifices.54
The Manobo myth about their origin had some Christian influences. Nevertheless, since it had shaped the Manobos’ view of their cultural beginnings, it is therefore worth recounting:6
“Apo Gahomon, a pregnant widow was told by a voice to inform the people that a flood is coming and that it would engulf the high mountains… Apo Gahomon told this to the people but they did not believe her… true to the prediction, the seawater swelled and flooded the earth including the high mountains. A giant crab (kayumang) blocked the outlet of the sea causing it to swell. Apo Gahomon secured herself in a wooden box (baul)… When the water rose high, the people asked help from Apo, but… it was too late. Meanwhile, a big snake (sawa) appeared from nowhere kept on tossing the baul towards the top of Sinagalaw Mountain… then the sawa left and went to the sea. There, the sawa challenged the kayumang to a fight. The latter did not mind. The sawa was infuriated and grabbed the kayumang until he finally moved allowing the water to pass through its outlet. Thus, water receded and the flood subsided.
When the water had completely receded and some places had dried up, Apo Gahomon commanded the uwak (crow) to find out if there was any other survivor. The uwak failed to return. Apo Gahomon sent another messenger, the Kulasisi (parakeet). Kulasisi found that the uwak failed to return because she was busy with worms found on dead people. Kulasisi reprimanded uwak and reminded her about her mission… it did not take long before Apo Gahomon begot a child. She reared him to manhood who later became her husband. Out of this wedlock descended the Manobo people.
Whatever theory holds water, many scholars believed that the Manobos were the original settlers of Agusan. Some of them lived in the swampy riverine areas near the Agusan river delta. They were called Lupaknon Manobos or ‘mudflat dwellers.’7 on the other hand, some preferred to live in the upper reaches of the Agusan River. They were called Agusanon Manobos, or ‘Agusan river dwellers,’8
__________
1 Richard Elkins, “An Extended Proto-Manobo word list,” Panagani, Language Implementation, and Evaluation: Essay in Honor of Bonifacio P. Sibayan on his 67th Birthday, (Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines, 1984).
2 Juan Francisco de San Antonio, “Cronicas,” Blair and Robertson, Vol.40 pp.331.
3 Mardonio M. Lao, “Butuan Before the Spanish Occupation: An Introduction,” Mindanao Journal Vol.6, nos. 2-4 (1979-1980) pp. 245 and 247-248.
4 Jose Algue, El Archipelago Filipino (Washington: Impr. Dei Gobierno, 1900), pp.129-130
5 William Henry Scott, “Linguistics and Paleography,” in Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History, (Quezon City. New Day Publishers, 1984), p.35.
6 This myth was narrated to Dionisio L. Yumo by one of his Manobo Datu informants; see Yumo, Power politics of Southern Agusan Manobo, M.A. Thesis, Xavier University, 1971. There is a similar version of the flood narrated by Datu Manpalayto Andahan of Calabu-an, Esperanza, Agusan del Sur to Hilaria L. Arquisola, 29 April 1970, see Arquisola, Ang Alamimbayan ng mga manobo sa apat na bayan ng Timog Agusan, M.A. Thesis, University of Santo Tomas, 1971.
7 Erlinda M. Burton, “Settlement and Burial Sites in Butuan City. A Preliminary Report,” Philippine Studies, Vol.25, no.1 (1977)., p.98.
8 Rosario C. Lucero, “Agusanon Manobo,” CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Arts I, A-J (Manila: Sentrong Pangkultura ng Pilipinas, 1994), p.40.
9 Erlinda M. Burton, “Remains of Lost Tribe Dug Up,” Times Journal, Vol.5, no.54 (1976), p.11
10 Francisco Combes, Frank Lynch, and Richard Elkins proposed the idea that the Manobos were the original Settlers of Mindanao. They published their ideas separately. See Combes, “Historia de las Islas de Mindanao, Jolo, y sus Adjacentes,” in B & R, XL, 103; Lynch, “Philippines: Bridge to Southeast Asia,” Philippine Studies XV (1967): 167-176; Elkins, “An Extended Proto-Manobo Word List,” Panagani, Language Implementation, and Evaluation: Essay in Honor of Bonifacio P. Sibayan on his 67th Birthday (Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines, 1984).
11 Blair and Robertson, Vol.40, p.123.
12 Richard Elkins, “An Extended Proto-ManoboWord List,” Panagani, Language Implementation and Evaluation: Essay in Honor of Bonifacio P. Sibayan on His 67th Birthday (Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines, 1984).
13 Leonor O. Goquingco, “The Manobo,” The Dances of the Emerald Isles, (Manila: Ben-Lor Publishers, 1980), p.125.
14 John M. Garvan, A Survey of the Material and Sociological Culture of the Manobo of the Manobo of Eastern Agusan (Washington: Government Printing Office 1987),p.1
15 Mateo Gisbert, Letter to Fathers of Veruela, 20 February 1886, Blaire and Robertson, Vol.43,p.241.
16 Luis de Jesus, “Historia de los Religiosos Descalzos,” Blair and Robertson, Vol.36,128.
17 Pablo Pastells, Letter to Father Provincial Juan Capelle S.J., 20 April 1887, Blair and Robertson, Vol. 43, p.276.
18 Blair and Robertson footnote, Vol.40,p,123
19 Pedro de San Francisco de Asis, “General History of the Discalced Augustinian Fathers,” Blair and Robertson, Vol. 41, p.153.
20 Dionisio L. Yumo, “Power Politics of Southern Agusan Manobo,” Mindanao Journal, Vol.15, nos. 1-4 (1988-1989),p.5.
21 Mateo Gisbert, Letter to Fathers of Veruela, 20 February 1886, Blair and Robertson, Vol.43,p.241.
22 Francisco Combes, “Historia de Las Islas de Mindanao Jolo, y sus adjacentes,” Blair and Robertson, Vol.40, p.103.
23 Luis de Jesus, “Historia de los Religiosos Descalzos,” Blair and Robertson, Vol.36, p.128.
24 Mateo Gisbert, Letter to Fathers of Veruela, 20 February 1886, Blair and Robertson, Vol. 43 p.241.
25 Pedro de San Francisco de Asis, “General History of the Discalced Augustinian Fathers,” Blair and Robertson, Vol.41, p.153.
26 According to William Henry Scott, the Manobo is a warrior society. See Scott’s “Class Structure in the Unhispanized Philippines,” in cracks in the Parchment Curtain (Quezon City. New Day Publishers, 1982), 144. I found no other work explicitly classifying the Manobos as a warrior tribe, except Luis de Jesus (1681:128) who said that the Manobos is a race much inclined to war.
27 John M. Garvan, The Manobos of Mindanao (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1931).
28 Jose S. Arcilla, “The Jesuit Letters and Mindanao,” Philippine Studies, Vol.37, no.3, (1989), p.364.
29 Pablo pastells, Letter to the Mission Superior, Cateel, 8 June 1878: Cartas de los PP. De la Compañia de Jesus de la Mision de Filipinas, II, 144.
30 Rosario C. Lucero, “Agusanon Manobo,” CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Arts I, A-J (Manila: Sentrong Pangkultrura ng Pilipinas, 1994), p.42-43.
31 Dionisio L. Yumo, “Power Politics of Southern Agusan Manobo,” Mindanao Journal Vol.15, nos. 1-4 (1988-1989), p.35.
32 Miguel de Loarca, “Relations of the Filipinas Islands,” Blair and Robertson, Vol.5, pp. 131-133.
33 Erlinda M. Burton, “The Manobo Religion and its Rituals,” Kinaadman Vol.7, no. 1 (1985) pp.13-21.
34 Joseph Montano, “A Rugged Journey Across Tribal Mindanao One Hundred Years Ago,” Peter Screurs (Trans), Kinaadman Vol.5 (1983), p.323.
35 Samuel M. Briones, The Archaeology of Butuan and Related Activities in the Summer Fieldschool Programme of Mindanao State University, Marawi city, Philippines, MS., 8-11.
36 Erlinda M. Burton, “Settlement and Burial Sites in Butuan City. A Preliminary Report,” Philippine Studies Vol.25, no.1 (1977),p.109.
37 Antonio Pigafetta, “First Voyage Around the World,” Blair and Robertson, Vol.33, pp. 120-129.
38 Artemio C. Barbosa, “The Ambangan Earthenware: A preliminary Analysis of Pottery Excavated in Butuan City, Philippines,” Mindanao journal Vol. 5, no.2 (1978), p.4.
39 ASEAN Report, “Report on Mental Working and Artifacts in the Balanghai I Site, Libertad, Butuan City,” Third Intra-ASEAN Archaeological Excavation and Conservation, Butuan City, Philippines, 16 Nov.-10 Dec.,1986.
40 William Henry Scott, “Boat Building and Seamanship in Classic Philippine Society,” Anthropological Papers 9, (1981), p.23.
41 Antonio Pigafetta, “First Voyage Around the World,” Blair and Robertson, Vol.33,pp. 123-124.
42 Erlinda M. Burton, “Settlement and Burial Sites in Butuan City. A Preliminary Report,” Philippine Studies Vol.25, no.1 (1977), pp.108-109.
43 Luis de Jesus, “Historia de los Religiosos Descalzoz,” Blair and Robertson, Vol.36, p.128.
44 Don Aniceto Beray, Letter to Sr.Exmo. Capitan Grãl de estas Islas Filipinas, Talacogon, 20 June 1886: Philippine National Archives, Exp. 9, Fol.180.
45 Pablo Pastells, Letter to Father Provincial Juan Capelle S.J., 20 April 1887, Blair and Robertson, Vol. 43, p.227.
46 Jose S. Arcilla, “Jesuit Letters and Mindanao,” Philippine Studies Vol.37, (1989), p.363.
47 Mateo Gisbert, Letters to Father Veruela, 20 February 1886 Blair and Robertson, Vol.43, p.241.
48 Leonor O. Goquingco, “The Manobo,” The Dances of the Emerald Isles, (Manila: Ben-Lor Publishers, 1980), p.125.
49 Erlinda M. Burton, “The Manobo Religion and its Rituals,” Kinaadman Vol.7, no. 1 (1985).pp.14-17.
50 John M. Garvan, “The Manobo of Mindanao,” Memoirs of the National Academy (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office,1929), pp.191-202.
51 Erlinda M. Burton, “The Manobo Religion and its Rituals,” Kinaadman Vol.7, no.1 (1985), pp.14-17.
52 Erlinda M. Burton, “The Manobo Religion and Rituals,” Kinaadman Vol. 7 no. 1 (1985), p.17.
53 Rosario C. Lucero, “Agusanon Manobo,” CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Arts I, A-J (Manila: Sentrong Pangkultura ng Pilipinas, 1994), pp.53-54,
54 Erlinda M. Burton, “The Manobo, Religion and Rituals,” Kinaadman Vol. 7 no. 1, (1985), p.20.
No comments:
Post a Comment